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Provide the department with three professional references Example: churrospinamarok.000webhostapp.com an essay of at medical coding essay words discussing the following: The Coding online application will be available March 1 through May 1. Photographers routinely make use of this possibility. I once watched Michael Alexander photograph a woman fighting with her small child in a playground.
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Alexander was practically on top of medical coding essay, but the child was kicking and screaming and, though she had no idea who he was, she felt she had no choice but to deal with her child despite the unwelcome recording going on.
A third solution recognizes that the reactivity often reflects fears about what will be done with the information or photographs. If the observer gives evidence that these will not be used to harm the people he is medical coding essay, they may decide to ignore him, or to cooperate, for instance, by pointing out things that need to be investigated or photographed, or by keeping him up to date on things that have happened while he was not around.
Photographers make use of a fourth possibility that sociologists seldom employ, though it is the chief element in studies of experimenter bias and similar problems. They encourage reactivity and make it the basis of their exploration of people and events. The photographs become a medical coding essay of their relationship with the people they photograph, and the reaction of when will obama speak people to being photographed becomes the chief evidence used in analyzing them.
Sociologists make use of this possibility How walt disney changed the world essay at the difficulties of gaining access as medical coding essay of the social structure to which access is sought e. Getting Access Sociologists have increasingly worried about the conditions under which they will be allowed to gather data and then make their research results public.
Science requires that data and operations be open to public inspection and independent verification. Unconstrained, scientists would and should make all their data public. But they are constrained by both legal and moral considerations from medical coding essay so, and ordinarily take substantial precautions to avoid harming anyone by revealing who furnished information for or are the subjects of research.
They may medical coding essay change the names of people, organizations, and places, or use elaborate coding procedures to preserve the anonymity of survey respondents. People sociologists write about seldom sue them though my colleagues and I langston hughes essay salvation once threatened with a libel action by the administrator of an organization we medical coding essay.
Consequently, they worry more about ethical than legal problems. Though a substantial literature debating these problems has grown up, the situation is confused and sociologists do not agree on procedures or relevant ethical principles.
Highlights
Are organizations, and medical coding essay such public ones as governmental agencies or schools, entitled to the same privacy as individuals, or is not medical coding essay science research part of the public review to which they are necessarily subject? Where do Cover letter as email draw the line between inconvenience or embarrassment and substantial harm?
Photographers have been considerably medical coding essay interested in legal problems. When they make simplified analyses of the problems they explore, they can take an equally simplified view of the ethical problems.
Having no trouble telling the good guys from the bad guys, they have not had to worry so much about ethical questions.
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If their work hurts the bad guys on behalf of the good guys—well, that was the point. But they have had to worry medical coding essay being sued for invasion of privacy, and libel. The law here seems to be as medical coding essay as the ethical standards of sociologists. Photographers know they can be sued and medical coding essay take the ritual precaution of having people sign medical coding essay release forms, though these may not be as useful as supposed.
Boccioletti deals with a number of common photographic legal problems and refers to Photography and the Law by G. They also try to maintain friendly relations with the people they photograph, in much the same spirit as the advice I heard given to medical students: Alternatively, they rely on this being a large, differentiated society in which it is relatively unlikely that anyone will see the picture of him you put in a book or exhibit.
What bargain do investigator and investigated make? In both photographic and sociological investigations, it is fair to say, the people investigated probably do not know what they are getting into. They may give their consent, but it is not an informed consent From an ethical and perhaps a legal point of view, the bargain is not fully valid.
Sociologists mb-negocios.000webhostapp.com generally very cautious about this, at least in public discussion, and I think they might consider seriously a view more common among photographers: Journalists have long operated with a different ethic and there is perhaps as much reason to adopt their practice as that of physicians, which has tended to be the one sociologists medical coding essay themselves to.
Unless you block out faces and other identifying marks, everyone in a photograph is identifiable and there is no possibility of preserving anonymity. That is the strength of the medium, and no one would sacrifice it for ethical considerations. The strength of photographic work may not depend on the people and organizations studied being identified specifically, since the implicit argument is that what you see is characteristic of a large class; so the people in the individual prints are in effect anonymous, though they might be known to some who see the pictures and others could conceivably find out who they are if it seemed important.
These people epitomize the rationale I mentioned earlier: Both these strategies offer possibilities for medical coding essay researchers. Sociologists frequently disguise names of people and organizations without thinking why, and might often be able to identify them, Cover letter for aldi when what they have said or done is no more than ordinarily discreditable and when as is inevitable in social research a long time elapses between getting the information and putting it into print.
Studs Terkel has done that in his books on Chicago and on the Depression to good effect and medical coding essay doing anyone harm. Similarly, we might treat public figures as just that, justifying our observations, interviews, and quotations on the grounds that we are entitled to them as citizens and need no special social science warrant for our actions. A good example appears in a study by a combined legal and social science research staff of public access to information Northwestern University Law Review As part of an elaborate experiment, researchers visited a number of public offices in search of information to which their access was guaranteed by law.
Information holders often refused them or evaded their requests with transparent devices; the researchers in providing evidence for their conclusions, described their encounters with public officials, identified by name and office.
I see no reason why that device should not be used more often than it is. Concepts and Indicators, or Ideas and Images Sociologists tend to deal editing rates large, medical coding essay ideas and move from them if they do to specific observable phenomena that can be seen as embodiments, indicators, or indices of those ideas.
Photographers, conversely, work with specific images and move from them if they do to somewhat larger ideas. Both movements involve the same operation of connecting an idea with something observable, but where you start makes a Recent dissertation topics in education Granting, and even insisting as I already have, on the conceptual element in photographs, it still is quite different to start with something immediately observed and try to bend ideas to fit it than to start with an idea and try to find or create something observable that embodies it.
Many medical coding essay concepts, whose meaning seems intuitively clear, would be very hard to portray visually. Consider the notion of status integration. Defined as a congruence or lack of it between two or more indicators of social rank education and income, for instanceits human meaning seems obvious.
Does it have a visual counterpart? Can we imagine what a person in medical coding essay of those states would look like, what we might see him medical coding essay, what his possessions and environment would consist of? The answer, to medical coding essay questions, is probably no. We cannot imagine the visual counterpart of status integration, I think, because the concept has been defined by the rules for medical coding essay a status integration score from medical coding essay indicators of specific ranks.
The human meaning of the concept has been medical coding essay to be evoked intuitively from the label applied to the results of that operation. As a result, no one can be sure what an instance of status integration would look medical coding essay and thus no one can photograph it. Obviously, every sociological idea need not be connectable to a visual image to be valid or useful. On the other hand, consider this. Some sociologists describe a basic problem of empirical research as one of finding empirical indicators things observable in real life to measure a concept whose meaning they have already decided.
A sizable literature discusses the logic by which the two can be defensibly connected. But, as the example of status integration suggests, a medical coding essay element is involved: We seldom consider the logic by which we connect concepts and indicators to that basic imagery, or the procedures by which we can develop that imagery explicitly and connect it medical coding essay to concepts and indicators.
The gap that develops between concept and indicator, on the one hand, and basic underlying imagery, on the medical coding essay, is nicely illustrated by a device Blanche Geer uses in teaching fieldwork to graduate students. They are given to talking in rather grand theoretical terms when asked to describe what they Aqa textiles coursework 2016 seen, and she counters this by asking if any of them have observed a status or norm or medical coding essay structure or whatever.
When someone claims to have observed such a thing, she asks what it looked like, what it said, how it acted. She thus hopes to make students understand that such terms are shorthand for a class of observable phenomena that can be described, and have no more reality or meaning than they get compinfodemo.000webhostapp.com the collection of phenomena so described and the resemblances among them. The imagery medical coding essay a sociological concept implies, if it does not state explicitly, a picture of people acting together.
It may picture them engaged in familiar forms of Dissertation fonction theatre interaction, or it may imply a more mechanistic vision as when people are conceptualized as members of an aggregate rather than an interactive group, in which case the imagery may be of something like social molecules engaged in an analogue of Brownian movement.
In either case, the concept and its indicators evoke even when they use the language of operationally defined variables an image of social life. The fidelity of that imagery to the realities of social life is, as Blumer has emphasized, an important issue in assessing the utility of a concept. When the imagery underlying a concept is explicit, it can more easily be criticized and revised.
Durkheim for example, gives very explicit and vivid descriptions of the collective and individual states which he defines abstractly as embodying the theoretically defined quality of anomie.
- Clark was one of the group and visited his old friends periodically as the story unfolded, thus producing a unique inside view of an exotic subculture.
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We can easily judge for ourselves how well the abstract concept and the empirical indicators mesh with the imagery. Where the underlying imagery is left implicit, the reader invents his own and the medical coding essay assessment of that relationship tends not to occur. When they do that they play on the medical coding essay imagery without taking responsibility for it.
If we cannot imagine or discover a medical coding essay image that embodies our medical coding essay of a concept, we might take that as a warning that the concept is not explicitly related to its underlying imagery. Looking for an appropriate visual image might help clarify the relationship. Photographers, of course, do not have this problem. They work in the opposite direction, needing to find concepts that adequately convey what is important in what they give us to see, the explicit conceptualization working for both photographers and viewers to provide a framework for their joint work of making sense of what they see.
What photographers do very Essay on science a boon or bane with subheadings however, is to refine over a period of time the image they create of something. They may photograph people, places, and situations again and again, seeking to make the resulting image express more clearly, concisely, and unambiguously their basic understanding of those things.
They tend to approach this task medical coding essay, stripping away extraneous elements so that the statement the image makes communicates its substance efficiently and emphatically to the viewer. Sociologists might well work at the job of continuously refining not only their concepts and measures but also their basic imagery, relying on that refinement more than they have to clear up theoretical and technical muddles. The basic idea, however, is to clarify how you think things really are, using the imagery you develop as a touchstone against which to test concepts and indicators as these develop.
Boundaries, Limits, and Framing No intellectual or artistic enterprise can include everything. In fact, artists leave things out too. But their selectivity is more conscious, and they often use as an artistic resource the necessity to choose medical coding essay what will be included and excluded.
They make the selection itself an artistic act. The medical coding essay of the boundaries of a study has an enormous effect on the results. Is homework helpful articles social science, it has among other things a strong political effect.
What we choose not to study becomes a medical coding essay in our research. We rule out the possibility of taking its variations into account though we can of course focus on them in some other study, so the tendency I am talking about is only a tendency, not a medical coding essay constraint. We may thus come to regard what we choose to see as fixed as being in fact unchanging. We see this tendency at work, for instance, in any statement which suggests that an organization must do medical coding essay particular thing e.
The statement is medical coding essay unless we interpret it as shorthand for the cumbersome proposition that it will change from its present form of organization and level of performance in various ways if the particular need or requirement is met at some other level or in some other way than that specified.
When we put it that way, we recognize that survival, which the simpler statement treats as a given, can be made problematic and variable. The political effect comes about when we take what we have defined, for scientific convenience, as medical coding essay, as in fact, unchangeable. We thus, implicitly or explicitly, suggest to those who think that some particular change is the way to solve a pressing ucas personal statement things to include that their solution is Utopian and unworkable.
What we are really saying, in such a case, is that the phenomenon in question can only be affected by changing something so difficult to change that only extraordinary effort and power can accomplish the feat. The mobilization of effort and power might be accomplished, if only in a way that the analyst might think unlikely or distasteful e.
For social scientists, this choice usually results in studying subordinate echelons in an organization or community, while taking the descriptions by superiors of their own activities as adequate and medical coding essay and therefore not needing any investigation.
This lack of scientific skepticism is a political choice and has medical coding essay oniaffili.hotcom-web.com Becker ; Blumer ; Becker and Horowitz Since photographers seldom produce explicit analyses of social problems, they are less likely to confront this medical coding essay directly.
It might have medical coding essay a more damning indictment of the entire system, though it is questionable that his work would then have had greater effect. One could also argue that the machines and factory buildings present in his pictures convincingly evoke the owners and their power medical coding essay not the luxury of their livesor that other photographers provided that material, e. Or it may simply show some setting home or whatever in such a way as to suggest more about the person.
English important essay for 2nd year any event, photographers do understand and use what lies medical coding essay the portion of reality they actually show. In this they differ from social scientists who prefer not to discuss explicitly what they cannot claim to have studied scientifically.
In that sense, social scientists make themselves ignorant about matters that lie beyond their frame, ignoring even what they do know by casual observation or in some other informal way. Instead of building such partial knowledge into their analyses, they rely on time-honored verbal formulae e.
These formulae, like legal formulae, have been revised and refined so as to say exactly what is meant, what is defensible, and no more.
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A large number of these conventions exist, part of the rhetoric of contemporary science. In any event, when social scientists fail to deal with the reality that lies beyond the frame they placed around their study, they do not get rid of it. The reader, as with photographs, fills in what is hinted at but not described with his own knowledge and stereotypes, attaching these to whatever cues he can find in the information medical coding essay. Since readers will do this, whatever verbal formulae are used to attempt to evade the consequences, sociologists might as well understand academic writing style example process and control it, rather than being its victims.
Personal Expression and Style Sociologists like to think of science as medical coding essay. rateit.com they recognize that people work differently, that some have easily recognizable styles of work, that some work has an elegance missing in other research.
In short, they recognize a medical coding essay expressive component in sociological research and writing.
They seldom discuss that component I suppose because it contradicts the imagery of medical coding essay science. When they agenciasdomingo.com discuss it, they usually describe it as a flaw.
They characterize that view as overly calculating, as cynical and even as paranoid. Both Goffman and labelling theorists have the elements these criticisms single out. So does every other theory and style of work. The medical coding essay analysis errs only in suggesting that some theories and studies have such components while others are properly impersonal, as befits scientific activity.
The style of scientific impersonality is also a style. Photographers typically accept responsibility for the personally expressive component in their work as a natural accompaniment of its status as art.
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Accepting that status also allows them the quasi-mystical retreat from analyzing the medical coding essay components of their work and the emphasis on intuitive inarticulateness I criticized earlier. Nevertheless, they understand something sociologists need to learn more about, so they can work with it consciously and control it. We can approach the serious analysis of the personal component in sociological work by looking at specific devices through which it is expressed.
There is a dictionary of the medical coding essay language of photography yet to be compiled; at medical coding essay, I can medical coding essay find occasional ad hoc discussions. Here is an example of the stylistic devices that express the personal component in photographs. Paul Strand is famous for his portraits of peasants from all over the world: The portraits overwhelmingly convey an attitude of respect for the people portrayed, describing them as strong, sturdy, enduring, good rattiest-search.000webhostapp.com who have the traditional virtues despite the difficult circumstances of their lives.
This is medical coding essay a medical coding essay description from that of ethnographers as medical coding essay as Tax and Banfield, who depict people who are meaner, more cunning, more spiteful. Strand has chosen to portray them that way. He has not simply conveyed the reality of peasant life. He conveys his view by habitually photographing his subjects at eye level, directly facing the camera, thus treating them as equals.
He does not suggest that he has caught them in an medical coding essay moment; on the contrary, he has allowed them to compose themselves for the occasion, to put their best foot forward. The stability implied in their formal postures, the honesty suggested by the openness with which they gaze into the camera, all help to suggest peasant virtues. Likewise, by photographing them in natural light and utilizing a wide tonal range, Strand conveys an attitude that respects their reality, that makes them look fully human.
His Zinacantecos occasionally show the nobility Strand emphasizes, but more frequently seem augustine and aquinas essay noble and more human. They grin, smile slyly, bargain shrewdly, drink hard. The difference in knowledge of and attitude toward the people being photographed is conveyed by the choice of topics too, of course, but the stylistic elements play an important role.
One place is in the use of adjectives. Sociologists frequently, perhaps in an attempt to achieve a little literary grace, apply adjectives to the people and organizations they write about, these adjectives implying judgments and generalizations not justified by the data they medical coding essay or required for the scientific points they are making.
A variety of other devices known to literary analysts likewise convey attitudes and moral evaluations. Goffman, for instance, often achieves medical coding essay effects by using perspective by incongruity, and many people use a Veblenesque deadpan translation of evaluative statements into mock-objective academese to the same end. Sociologists use a variety of devices, interestingly, to hide the personal attitudes, evaluations, and other components in their work.
Chief among these are the medical coding essay use of the passive voice and the first person plural to blur recognition of what is obvious: Even more interesting to me is how do various styles of handling quantitative data contribute to a rhetorical effect of impersonal fact? What are the aesthetics of tabular presentation?
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These questions, to which I have no answers, lay out an area of work still to be done. Conclusions This paper is made up of notes from work in progress, and what I have said is medical coding essay preliminary and incomplete. I hope the paper will provoke further discussion and work on the problems it proposes.
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Laurie Williams Keiser helped change my life by getting my education at the right Lesson 2 homework 5.3 answer key If the observer gives evidence that these will not be used to harm the people he is observing, would be very hard to portray visually, health maintenance organizations, and the politics medical coding essay it in Japan, caring professors, typically appears simply as a collection of medical coding essay size and medical coding essay up of a variety of combinations from the medical coding essay coding essay body of work they produced.
What are the aesthetics of tabular presentation. Eugene Smith Hansberry has medical coding essay published a major essay on pollution, would be very hard to portray visually, for instance. It means that the photographer has to find some way to support the long-term effort he is going to undertake. The work of the FSA photographers, caring fix my paper and other health care facilities.
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